ethnic/RELIGIOUS CONFLICTS
Before we set foot into the causes and consequences of ethnic/religious conflicts, it is important that key concepts and definitions are clarified.
A definition of "ethnicity", as offered by Donald Horowitz in his paper Ethnic Groups in Conflict, all conflicts based on ascriptive group identities, race, language, religion, tribe or caste, can be called ethnic. A. Varshney also defines ethnicity as a set "to which religion, race, languages and sect belongs to as subsets".
It is also important to note that in any ethnically plural society that allows free expression of political demands, some ethnic conflict over resources, identity, patronage, and policies is more or less inevitable.(Varshney, n.d., pp 27) However, these conflicts do not necessarily turn into violence. The cases that we explore in this project are cases of conflict that has escalated to a scale of violence.
A definition of "ethnicity", as offered by Donald Horowitz in his paper Ethnic Groups in Conflict, all conflicts based on ascriptive group identities, race, language, religion, tribe or caste, can be called ethnic. A. Varshney also defines ethnicity as a set "to which religion, race, languages and sect belongs to as subsets".
It is also important to note that in any ethnically plural society that allows free expression of political demands, some ethnic conflict over resources, identity, patronage, and policies is more or less inevitable.(Varshney, n.d., pp 27) However, these conflicts do not necessarily turn into violence. The cases that we explore in this project are cases of conflict that has escalated to a scale of violence.
case studies
● Ethnic conflict in Assam
This is the most severe case of ethnic conflict in the history of India ever since the 1947 partition of India. Some 4000 lives were claimed, 200,000 ripped of their homes and more left the state ever since the conflict broke out in mid 1930s(Varshney, 2010). Two culturally disparate groups have been in collision: the local tribals—Bodos, and Bengali speaking Muslims from East Pakistan or Bangladesh (Bhattacharjee and Phukan, 2014). In their report, Bhattacharjee and Phukan claimed that ever since the 90s, Bodoland, where the conflict had arisen, had become home to one of the most internally displaced people. The line was “so clearly drawn” that “neighbours were undisguised enemies”. (Bhattacharjee and Phukan, 2014)
● Religious conflict in Punjab
The conflict in Punjab between Sikhs and Hindus are more closely associated with trade, wealth and political powers, and religious differences add on by separating the occupants into two major groups. The Sikhs had been presenting the government with religious, political and economic demands, some satisfied while others on the waiting list. Some examples of the demands include “a separate legislative act for Sikh religious shrines”, “greater share of river waters for irrigation”, and “greater financial powers”. (Varshney, 2010) These demands and the effects of the policies put into place had caused the gap, as well as the conflict, between Sikh and Hindu communities to grow.
● Hindu-Muslim Conflict
Among “ghastly communal violence”, a newly constituted Pakistan was born in 1947(Varshney, 2010). This witnessed the most critical moment in contemporary India history. The formation of Pakistan is due to the intense conflict between Hindus and Muslims in India. However the partition did not solve the problem—as many Muslims chose to remain in India as those who stayed in the newborn state. It only “deteriorated the problem”, since Muslims “were blamed for the division of the country, their powers were further weakened and their leadership had left”. In fact, Varshney claimed in her study that “Hindi-Muslim riots have increased in the past few years”.
causes
1. Fear of cultural dilution/assimilation
Cultural dilution means that a particular culture is changed or became less recognised among the group which upholds these traditions or practices. Cultual assimilation refers to a particular culture gradually becoming similar to the larger environment, losing its uniqueness and identity. These changes are usually due to the influx of immigrants into an area which was previously dominated by a certain cultural group. This leads to the interference in the daily lifestyles and cultural practices of the people, or causes this group of people to become a minority. Being apprehensive of such possible consequences, the native cultural group will be hostile towards the new immigrants, causing a similar return in attitude.(Varshney, 2010)
One example of conflict originating from the fear of cultural dilution is the ethnic conflict in Assam, as mentioned above. In the 1930s, when British ruled India, settlers from East Bengal (now Bangladesh) started arriving at Assam, apart from their cultivation skills, their own culture and practices also made the native Bodos feel threatened. (Bhattacharjee and Phukan, 2014)
2. Process of Modernization
As time progresses, India is going through a compulsory stage of development: modernisation. As much as modernisation helps India in its economy and financial sectors, it also creates problems within the nation itself. As India modernises, its population gradually increases, and so does its population density. This causes ethnic/religious groups to live closer to each other, and also causes a more intense competition for resources, which in turn manifests conflict (further discusses in point 3). India is now faced with the severe impact of overpopulation, and many of its effects, such as depletion of resources, aggravates the conflicts between ethnic/religious groups.(Rodrigues and Mcteague et al., n.d., pp. 59)
Living closer together also increases different cultural group’s ability to mobilise for collective action. Since they inhabit areas that are closer to each other, there will be more efficient communication and transfer of ideas. Therefore, whenever a particular member of the group has a sentiment about the other group, opinions will spread fast and eventually the group collectively acts against the other. (Rodrigues et al., n.d., pp. 59)
3. Unequal Development, Poverty, Lack of Opportunity and Threats that Lead to
Existing Group Privileges
As different communal groups compete for resources or privileges, there will be an unequal distribution of resources, or unequal development of different sectors that concern different ethnic/religious groups. This might evoke a feeling of relative deprivation among them, and thus spark conflicts. (Rodrigues and Mcteague et al., n.d., pp. 5)
Poverty is yet another cause of religious/ethnic conflicts. According to Poverties.org, poverty “is a major cause of social tension” and “threatens to divide a nation because of the issue of inequalities”. In a society, poverty is a dangerous factor that “can destabilize the entire country. When disparities in the distribution of wealth and resources are observed, it is indeed a major cause to the clashes between communal groups.(Poverties.org, 2012)
Cultural dilution means that a particular culture is changed or became less recognised among the group which upholds these traditions or practices. Cultual assimilation refers to a particular culture gradually becoming similar to the larger environment, losing its uniqueness and identity. These changes are usually due to the influx of immigrants into an area which was previously dominated by a certain cultural group. This leads to the interference in the daily lifestyles and cultural practices of the people, or causes this group of people to become a minority. Being apprehensive of such possible consequences, the native cultural group will be hostile towards the new immigrants, causing a similar return in attitude.(Varshney, 2010)
One example of conflict originating from the fear of cultural dilution is the ethnic conflict in Assam, as mentioned above. In the 1930s, when British ruled India, settlers from East Bengal (now Bangladesh) started arriving at Assam, apart from their cultivation skills, their own culture and practices also made the native Bodos feel threatened. (Bhattacharjee and Phukan, 2014)
2. Process of Modernization
As time progresses, India is going through a compulsory stage of development: modernisation. As much as modernisation helps India in its economy and financial sectors, it also creates problems within the nation itself. As India modernises, its population gradually increases, and so does its population density. This causes ethnic/religious groups to live closer to each other, and also causes a more intense competition for resources, which in turn manifests conflict (further discusses in point 3). India is now faced with the severe impact of overpopulation, and many of its effects, such as depletion of resources, aggravates the conflicts between ethnic/religious groups.(Rodrigues and Mcteague et al., n.d., pp. 59)
Living closer together also increases different cultural group’s ability to mobilise for collective action. Since they inhabit areas that are closer to each other, there will be more efficient communication and transfer of ideas. Therefore, whenever a particular member of the group has a sentiment about the other group, opinions will spread fast and eventually the group collectively acts against the other. (Rodrigues et al., n.d., pp. 59)
3. Unequal Development, Poverty, Lack of Opportunity and Threats that Lead to
Existing Group Privileges
As different communal groups compete for resources or privileges, there will be an unequal distribution of resources, or unequal development of different sectors that concern different ethnic/religious groups. This might evoke a feeling of relative deprivation among them, and thus spark conflicts. (Rodrigues and Mcteague et al., n.d., pp. 5)
Poverty is yet another cause of religious/ethnic conflicts. According to Poverties.org, poverty “is a major cause of social tension” and “threatens to divide a nation because of the issue of inequalities”. In a society, poverty is a dangerous factor that “can destabilize the entire country. When disparities in the distribution of wealth and resources are observed, it is indeed a major cause to the clashes between communal groups.(Poverties.org, 2012)
summary of causes
Consequences
Social
As A. Mitra and D. Ray have pointed out in their paper, the implications of racial, religious or ethnic conflicts in India includes “insecurity, segregation, loss of livelihood, widespread fear and sapping of the morale of the entire society”. In these listed impacts, segregation has the longest term of effect. A vicious cycle could be constructed: conflict, segregation, no communication or exchange of ideas, no understanding or empathy, conflict again.
Fear and loss of livelihood could in turn directly impact the economy of the country, since motivation to work hard had ceased to exist, in the most extreme cases. Insecurity and low morale may lead to a loss in national identity. If the conflict persists and life-threatening incidents happen frequently, the society will be in chaos. Another worse outcome is that the society has grown used to such conflicts, and has become numb to the deaths of fellow citizens, or the destruction of their homeland.
Economic
Economic progress is maintained by the people’s collective effort in a nation. So if conflicts were to occur and its people experiences “insecurity” and “widespread fear”, even suffering from “sapping of the morale”(Mitra and Ray, 2012), the nation’s economy will be facing a decline. In a chapter published by AfricanBank in 2008 on the consequences of conflicts, it explains that “the economy usually declines relative to its peacetime trend such that by the end of a conflict the economy will be significantly smaller than it would have been had peace been maintained”. Applying this theory in the India context, some of the ethnic tensions had lasted throughout the history of India, such as the India-pakistan dispute over Kashmir, and the clashes between Hindus and Muslims. These long periods of tension alongside frequent attacking or bombing accidents had more or less affected the economic progression of India.
Apart from economic decline, the country also has to increase its military expenditure. During conflicts, the government will “attempt to enhance its ability to resist the rebellion”, thus the costs of ammunition, arms and food supply will rise significantly. This is a worrying fact since it affects the government’s decision-making when it comes to allocation of budgets for each sector, since “baseline for each budget is the allocation in the previous year.” (AfricanBank, 2008) Uncertainties of future developments of the conflicts is also a major cause of fluctuations in the financial status of the country.
Health
In a research done by the University of California, San Francisco, it is found out that there is a strong relationship between social conflicts and poorer psychological well-being. In the same research, a link was drawn between coronary heart disease and level of hostility in a community too.
Children, when exposed to conflict, exhibits heightened physiological reactivity. Increased exposure to conflict since childhood will increase risks of depression and mortality. (Macses.ucsf.edu, 2008) From these studies, the future of a large part of India’s children is certainly worrying. Being exposed to frequent news about tensions or conflicts in the country, or being victims themselves, these children are likely to experience high psychological tension, which has a detrimental effect on their physical and psychological health in the future.
As A. Mitra and D. Ray have pointed out in their paper, the implications of racial, religious or ethnic conflicts in India includes “insecurity, segregation, loss of livelihood, widespread fear and sapping of the morale of the entire society”. In these listed impacts, segregation has the longest term of effect. A vicious cycle could be constructed: conflict, segregation, no communication or exchange of ideas, no understanding or empathy, conflict again.
Fear and loss of livelihood could in turn directly impact the economy of the country, since motivation to work hard had ceased to exist, in the most extreme cases. Insecurity and low morale may lead to a loss in national identity. If the conflict persists and life-threatening incidents happen frequently, the society will be in chaos. Another worse outcome is that the society has grown used to such conflicts, and has become numb to the deaths of fellow citizens, or the destruction of their homeland.
Economic
Economic progress is maintained by the people’s collective effort in a nation. So if conflicts were to occur and its people experiences “insecurity” and “widespread fear”, even suffering from “sapping of the morale”(Mitra and Ray, 2012), the nation’s economy will be facing a decline. In a chapter published by AfricanBank in 2008 on the consequences of conflicts, it explains that “the economy usually declines relative to its peacetime trend such that by the end of a conflict the economy will be significantly smaller than it would have been had peace been maintained”. Applying this theory in the India context, some of the ethnic tensions had lasted throughout the history of India, such as the India-pakistan dispute over Kashmir, and the clashes between Hindus and Muslims. These long periods of tension alongside frequent attacking or bombing accidents had more or less affected the economic progression of India.
Apart from economic decline, the country also has to increase its military expenditure. During conflicts, the government will “attempt to enhance its ability to resist the rebellion”, thus the costs of ammunition, arms and food supply will rise significantly. This is a worrying fact since it affects the government’s decision-making when it comes to allocation of budgets for each sector, since “baseline for each budget is the allocation in the previous year.” (AfricanBank, 2008) Uncertainties of future developments of the conflicts is also a major cause of fluctuations in the financial status of the country.
Health
In a research done by the University of California, San Francisco, it is found out that there is a strong relationship between social conflicts and poorer psychological well-being. In the same research, a link was drawn between coronary heart disease and level of hostility in a community too.
Children, when exposed to conflict, exhibits heightened physiological reactivity. Increased exposure to conflict since childhood will increase risks of depression and mortality. (Macses.ucsf.edu, 2008) From these studies, the future of a large part of India’s children is certainly worrying. Being exposed to frequent news about tensions or conflicts in the country, or being victims themselves, these children are likely to experience high psychological tension, which has a detrimental effect on their physical and psychological health in the future.
“If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other.” ― Mother Teresa